Responsable scientifique
Jean-Claude Croizet, PU psychologie sociale, LAPSCO
Axe sociologique :
Mathias Millet, GRESCO Poitiers
Calendrier :
2023-2027 + 1 an (2028)
Financement total accordé :
299 774 euros
Financement GRESCO :
17 447 euros
Résumé du projet :
Reducing social inequality in education: An important challenge. Regular reports from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) show that France is one of the OECD countries where the academic achievement gap between the high and low achievers is the most important. According to the INSEE, each year 120 000 French students drop out of school without any diploma. Reducing the academic achievement gap constitutes therefore a major social and scientific priority.
How students make sense of academic situations contributes to the achievement gap. Though the reasons why some students are confronted with academic difficulty are multiple (structural inequality, individual differences in academic skills, familiarity with the academic culture, etc.), recent research in social psychology has shown that the way students experience academic settings is determinant in how they achieve and persist in the face of difficulty. Indeed, due to the prevalence in educational settings of an essentialist belief that equates achievement with innate intelligence (e.g., Dweck, 1999; Keller, 2005; Plaut & Markus, 2005), academic difficulties are generally interpreted by students as a revelator of their own intellectual limitation. This interpretation in turn triggers psychological anxiety and emotions associated with feelings of self-disqualification—i.e., self-evaluative threat—which in turns, consume important attentional resource and ultimately undermine performance (Croizet et al., 2004; Normand, Bouquet & Croizet, 2014).
Previous research has proven that orienting the way students make sense of academic difficulty through brief social-psychological intervention can improve achievement. Because individuals do not react to situations per se but to the interpretation they make of them, reorienting the way students make sense of their academic experience can be a way to limit psychological threats and restore achievement (Walton & Crum, 2021). Research in social psychology has shown that it is indeed possible to experimentally orient, through brief social-psychological interventions, students’ construal of academic settings toward less threatening interpretations. For example teaching students that difficulty is a normal and necessary experience associated to learning rather than a sign of their intellectual inadequacy (Autin & Croizet, 2012) or valuing their self-worth by having them affirm important values (self-affirmation, see Cohen et al., 2006) can be an effective and costless route to reducing the gap between low and high achievers.
Brief social-psychological interventions aimed at reframing the way students interpret academic situations can improve achievement in some studies but they do not always work. Though research has repeatedly demonstrated that brief psychological interventions can be effective, several studies failed to find any benefits (Wu et al., 2021). In our own prior work, we observed that de-essentializing difficulty can improve higher cognition (Autin & Croizet, 2012; Goudeau & Croizet, 2017). We found that 6th graders’ reading comprehension and working memory efficiency was boosted when students were beforehand trained to believe that experiencing difficulty was a normal step in the learning process and not an indication of their intellectual inferiority. While this effect was replicated across several samples from the same age group, no gains were found when the paradigm was adapted to an adult population. Similarly, the beneficial impact of value affirmation on reducing the academic achievement gap is well documented. Still, several well-powered studies did not find any benefit (Wu et al., 2021 for a review)
Objectives and hypotheses IMPROVE: IMPROVE aims at addressing these inconsistencies by focusing on two blind spots in the literature: specifying the psychological and emotion processes at play and the conditions under which social-psychological interventions can improve students’ academic achievement. IMPROVE involves a series of 4 randomized experiments over a 4-year period.
Our first goal is to specify the cognitive and emotional processes impacted by two brief interventions (reframing of task difficulty, self-affirmation). Literature assumes that interventions orient students’ construal of their classroom experience in a way that is beneficial for achievement, but behavioral outcomes are usually assessed in the long term. There is actually very little evidence of the immediate psychological impact of brief psychological interventions. This fuels the debate about the mysterious or “magical” mediators driving their benefits (Yeager et al. 2011). With IMPROVE, we want to assess a theoretical statement that it is clearly assumed in the literature but never demonstrated: psychological interventions restores students’ cognitive resources by reducing, at least temporarily, psychological threat. For that purpose, IMPROVE examines the short term impact of interventions on students’ cognitive processes and emotional reactions. In a first series of studies, we will investigate how interventions influence cognitive and control resources by relying on various diagnostic tasks (complex memory span, control tasks) and emotional measures. We predict that interventions compared to a control condition immediately restores attentional resources on demanding tasks and reduces negative emotions (studies 1-2).
Our second goal is to document the important role that the institutional educational context plays in the moderation of wise intervention effects. There is currently growing inquiry about the reasons why some interventions do work while other fail, a “treatment effect heterogeneity” (Tipton et al., 2019). By nature, interventions aims at shaping how students feel and think about their academic experience so as to either minimize the beliefs that experiencing difficulty is a sign of intellectual inferiority or that difficulty means that one does belong to school (Sherman et al. 2021; Walton & Brady, 2021) At the same time, the beliefs that academic difficulty reveals students’ intellectual value or primes the fear one does not belong are ubiquitous in education (Millet & Croizet, 2016). Educational settings are indeed not neutral and afford to a large extent, but to various degree, the very essentialist belief that brief psychological interventions aimed at buffering. IMPROVE will therefore focus on the interplay between the psychological interpretations of academic difficulty conveyed by psychological interventions and the constraints posed on these interpretations by the institutional context in which they are implemented. We predict that interventions will be less effective when they do not match with the institutional context in which they are implemented. Examining the role that the institutional context plays in the moderation of intervention effects will take two forms. On the one hand we will manipulate the intervention- institutional connectedness. In one study, our goal will be to test the simple hypothesis that the intervention brings benefits only if the context in which it is implemented and that in which performance is assessed are connected versus disconnected. To test this prediction we will rely on a minimal paradigm involving 2 conditions. In this study (study 3), participants will be run individually. In the connectedness condition, the intervention and the performance evaluation will be administered by the same experimenter (see Autin & Croizet, 2012). In other words, when students perform, the message conveyed in the intervention is supported by the authoritative figure assessing their performance (see Autin & Croizet, 2012). In the disconnected condition, the intervention and the performance evaluation will be administered by two distinct experimenters allegedly as two unrelated projects. In other words, when students perform, the message conveyed in the intervention is no longer supported by the authoritative figure assessing their performance. Study 4, in which students will be run collectively in their regular classrooms, will operationalize a variant of this manipulation. In this study, the intervention will be presented either as a teacher’s requirement (match) versus as requested by an outside researcher (mismatch) (see Smith et al. 2021 though no effect were found on achievement). To further explore the moderating role of the institutional context, we will also measure in the 4 studies institutional support through 3 manners. (a) We will assess the perception that students have of the level of support of the message conveyed in the intervention from their school institution through a self-report measure (e.g., “To what extent to do you believe that [message] is of interests to your teachers, that your teachers agree with [message]). (b) We will – assess teachers’ disposition toward the message through a questionnaire that will be elaborated based on a series of interviews. (c) We finally will also collect indicators of the institutional culture of student’s classroom and school from Pronote (Index Education), the software used in French schools for communicating between educational actors, students and parents. We will focus on information informing teachers’ promotion of the essentialization of achievement (e.g., referral to psychological traits in students’ reports), of competition among students (e.g., activation of the students ranking information within their classroom) of stigmatization of poor achievement (e.g., whether teachers opt or not for the lower grades to be displayed vividly in red in the reports).
To investigate the interaction between social contexts and cognition, IMPROVE relies on an interdisciplinary collaboration between experts in social psychology, cognitive psychology, sociology, academic actors and authorities.
Résumé de la partie sociologique :
L’axe de recherche sociologie porte sur le bien-être à l’école. Les rapports réguliers du Programme international pour le suivi des acquis des élèves (PISA) montrent que la France est l’un des pays de l’OCDE où l’écart de réussite scolaire entre les élèves les plus performants et les moins performants est le plus important. Selon l’INSEE, chaque année, 120 000 élèves français quittent l’école sans diplôme. Plus qu’ailleurs et plus que par le passé, les origines sociales et les conditions d’étude pèsent d’un poids déterminant sur les chances de réussite scolaire des jeunes Français. Des différences apparaissent dès l’école maternelle.
D’après l’enquête PISA toujours, la France compte aujourd’hui parmi les pays où les élèves sont les plus anxieux face aux apprentissages scolaires, à la fois par crainte d’être évalué et comparé aux autres élèves, mais aussi parce qu’ils développent un sentiment aigu d’incompétence ou de crainte de ne pas savoir qui altère leur persévérance face à la tâche et leurs performances. Nombre d’élèves viennent par ailleurs à l’école avec leurs problèmes personnels, ne se sentent pas à leur place, stressent face aux épreuves scolaires ou sont déstabilisés par les modalités d’apprentissage qui leur sont proposées.
Comme les recherches en éducation le montrent, ces sentiments dont une part résulte de difficultés face aux apprentissages scolaires, peuvent conduire les élèves à des pratiques d’évitement scolaire ou tout simplement les détourner des activités de la classe, les préoccupations, le stress ou les appréhensions s’avérant peu favorables à une activité cognitive suivie et efficace (« je ne sais pas faire », « je ne veux pas faire », « je ne vais pas y arriver ») et pouvant prendre la forme par exemple de tactiques d’évitement ou d’autocensures, ou plus simple de performances altérées.
Face à cette situation, et depuis plusieurs années, des mobilisations, en particulier de la part de chercheurs en psychologie et en sciences de l’éducation, et dans leur sillon d’acteurs publics, ont conduit à ce que les institutions se penchent sur la question du « bien-être » et du « mal-être » à l’école. L’idée est à la fois de construire des indicateurs permettant d’en donner une mesure, mêlant à la fois des facteurs objectifs comme les conditions d’existence et des facteurs subjectifs (autour des ressentis), pour agir et améliorer le sentiment de bien-être à l’école et au-delà ce que l’institution appelle volontiers « la disponibilité des élèves vis-à-vis des apprentissages. » C’est à cette question plus particulière que le volet sociologique de cette recherche s’intéresse.
Depuis le début des années 2010 en effet, la question du bien-être à l’école s’est imposée comme un objet sinon central du moins important des politiques publiques, notamment éducatives, des débats pédagogiques et des recherches en sciences sociales. Elle est portée par des institutions internationales telles que l’OCDE ou le Conseil de l’Europe, relayée par des circulaires ministérielles en France — comme celle de 2016 sur le climat scolaire —, et investie par des travaux en psychologie et en sciences de l’éducation. Cette question fait partie de ce qu’on pourrait appeler des « nouvelles problématiques éducatives » (Moignard 2017) — qu’il s’agisse de la laïcité, du harcèlement, du décrochage, et dans le cas d’espèce du bien-être — lesquelles émergent dans un contexte marqué par la massification scolaire, la multiplication des évaluations internationales (notamment les enquêtes PISA) et une critique croissante de la « forme scolaire » traditionnelle (Vincent, 1980).
Le « bien-être » à l’école s’est ainsi constitué en catégorie d’action publique. Or, en recentrant le débat sur des questions d’ergonomie sociale (aménagement des espaces, gestion des conflits), de l’environnement (climat scolaire) ou de psychologie individuelle (confiance en soi, résilience), ces approches interrogent le sens social d’un ensemble de mesures publiques à visée améliorative.
Cette recherche se donne ainsi un double objectif.
Dans une optique classique de sociologie de l’action publique, il s’agira dans un premier temps de reconstruire les étapes et les enchaînements à l’origine de l’affirmation de cette question du bien-être à l’école comme un problème devant faire l’objet d’une attention particulière. L’objectif est de comprendre la genèse de ce problème, comment il s’est imposé à la conscience publique, dans quels contextes, par quels vecteurs et par quels acteurs. Il est également question de saisir ses phases d’imposition (comment ce problème mobilise des expertises qui médiatisent et légitiment son existence comme problème à traiter ou sur lequel il faut agir). Il est enfin, une fois le problème reconnu, d’en cerner les traductions institutionnelles, c’est-à-dire les dispositifs imaginés et mis en œuvre dans le cadre scolaire pour apporter des réponses à cette question, et favoriser le « bien-être à l’école ».
Un second volet de la recherche consistera à rencontrer et interviewer des acteurs institutionnels (directeurs d’école ou chefs d’établissement, enseignants, inspecteurs, etc.) qui mettent en place, soutiennent ou développent de tels dispositifs visant à favoriser le « bien-être des élèves » pour à la fois comprendre leurs engagements dans ces dispositifs à l’aune de leur trajectoire, mais aussi les pratiques mis en œuvre, leur fonctionnement et leurs effets. Ces entretiens seront complétés dans la mesure du possible par des observations de plusieurs dispositifs développés.
Informations complémentaires
Equipe de recherche :
| Partner | Name | First name | Current position | Role & responsibilities in the project | Involvement (person.month) |
| U. Clermont Auvergne / LAPSCO UMR CNRS 6024 | CROIZET | Jean-Claude | Professor | Scientific Coordinator Supervision and involvement in of all WPs | 24 p. month |
| U. Clermont Auvergne / LAPSCO UMR CNRS 6024 | HUGUET | Pascal | CNRS Research director | Partner 1 contributor: Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement in WPs 1, 2 | 7.2 p. month |
| U. Clermont Auvergne / LAPSCO UMR CNRS 6024 | BELLETIER | Clément | Assistant
professor |
Partner 1 contributor: Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement WP 1 | 4.8 p. month |
| U. Clermont Auvergne / LAPSCO UMR CNRS 6024 | NORMAND | Alice | Assistant
professor |
Partner 1 contributor: Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement in WPs 1 | 4.8 p. month |
| U. Clermont Auvergne / LAPSCO UMR CNRS 6024 | CHAUSSE | Pierre | Research engineer | Partner 1 contributor: methodological and technical involvement in WP 1, 2 | 12 p. month |
| U. Poitiers / CERCA UMR CNRS 7295 | AUTIN | Frédérique | Assistant professor | Partner 2 coordinator : Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement in WP 1, 2 | 9.6 p. month |
| U. Poitiers / CERCA UMR CNRS 7295 | BOUQUET | Cédric | Professor | Partner 2 contributor : Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement in WP 1 | 4.8 p. month |
| U. Tours / CITERES UMR CNRS 7324 | MILLET | Mathias | Professor | Partner 3 contributor : Theoretical, methodological and technical involvement in WP 2 | 9,6 p. month |
